SOME SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY IN SANAATANA DHARMA

SOME SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY IN SANAATANA DHARMA

By Swami Avadhutananda

(Exclusive to Sikkim Chamber of commerce e newsletter)

The six schools of philosophy in Sanaatana Dharma (Hinduism) or the Shad-Darshana-s are the six orthodox systems of philosophy. They are the six ways of looking at the Truth. They are: (1) Nyaaya; (2) Vaiseshika; (3) Saankhya; (4) Yoga; (5) Purva-Mimaansaa; and (6) Uttara-Mimaansaa, or Vedaanta. The orthodox systems of philosophy believe in the authority of the Veda-s.

Gautam Rishi systematized the principles of Nyaaya or the Indian system of Logic. Kannaada composed the Vaiseshika sutra-s. Kapila Muni founded the Saankhya system. Patanjali Maharshi is the first to systematize the Yoga school. He composed Yoga Sutra-s. The Yoga-Darshana of Patanjali is a celebrated text-book on Raaja Yoga. Jaimini, a disciple of Vyaasa, composed the Sutra-s of the Mimaamsaa School, which is based on the ritual-sections of the Veda-s. Baadaraayana composed his famous Brahma-sutra-s which expounds the teachings of the Upanishad-s. The different schools of Vedaanta have built their philosophy on the foundation of these Sutra-s.

Shad-Darshana-s or the Six Orthodox Schools: Shad-Darshana-s grew directly out of the Veda-s. Darshana literally means vision. Each Darshana is a way of looking into the Truth; it is a standpoint in respect of the Truth.

The six schools of thought are six different ways of approach to the same goal. The methods or ways of approach to the goal are different to suit people of different temperaments, capacities and physical, mental and intellectual evolutionary levels. But they all have one aim, viz., removal of ignorance and its effects of pain and sufferings and the attainment of freedom, perfection, immortality and eternal bliss by the union of the individual or the finite self (Jivaatman) with the Supreme or the Infinite Self (Paramaatman).

The six schools are divided into three groups: (1) Nyaaya and Vaiseshika, (2) Saankhya and Yoga, and (3) Purva Mimaansaa and Vedaanta. Vaiseshika is a supplement of the Nyaaya. Yoga is a supplement of Saankhya. Vedaanta is an amplification and fulfillment of Saankhya.

Some of the doctrines of Nyaaya, Vaiseshika, Saankhya and Yoga are opposed to the teachings of Veda-s. These systems are only superficially based on Veda-s. Nyaaya and Vaiseshika schools rely too much on human reason, though they accept the Veda-s as the supreme authority. Human intellect is frail and finite. It has got its limitations. It functions within the limitations of time, space and causation. Its findings cannot be infallible. It cannot comprehend transcendental subject. Only Veda-s are infallible and authoritative. They contain the revelations or direct intuitive experiences of the seers and Rishi-s. These experiences, tally with the experiences of those, who have attained Knowledge of the Self (Brahma Jnaana).

Vedaanta is the most popular of all the schools today. It is the most satisfactory system of philosophy. It has been evolved out of Upanishad-s. It has superseded all other schools. According to Vedaanta, Self-realization (aatmabodha) is the ultimate goal and ritual and worship are accessories. Karma will take one to heaven which is only an impermanent place of refined sensual enjoyment. Karma cannot destroy the cycle of births and deaths and cannot give eternal bliss and immortality.

SAANKHYA: The word "Saankhya" means 'number'. The system gives an enumeration of the principles of the universe, twenty-four in number. Hence the name is quite appropriate. The term "Saankhya" is also used in the sense of "vichaara" (philosophical reflection).

In the Saankhya system, there is no analytical enquiry into the universe as actually existing, arranged under topics and categories. There is a synthetical system, starting from an original primordial tattva (principle), called prakriti, that which evolves or produces or brings forth (prakaroti) everything else. Pratyaksha (perception), anumaana (inference) and aapta vaakya (right affirmation) are the three pramaana-s (proofs) in the Saankhya system.

The western philosophers have a great admiration for this system. It is more categorically dualistic. It denies that anything can be produced out of nothing. It assumes the reality of Purusha and Prakriti—the knowing Self and the objects known.

Prakriti and Purusha are anaadi (beginingless) and ananta (eternal). Non-discrimination between the two is the cause for birth and death. Discrimination between Prakriti and Purusha gives mukti (liberation). Both Purusha and Prakriti are sat (real). Purusha is asanga (unattached). He is consciousness, all-pervading and eternal. Purusha identified with Prakriti is the doer and enjoyer. Souls are countless.

The Saankhya system is called Nir-Ishvara (Godless) Saankhya. It is atheistic. The Saankhya-s do not believe in Ishvara (God). The creation produced by Prakriti has an existence of its own, independent of all connection with the Purusha. So the Saankhya-s say that there is no need for an intelligent Creator of the world, or even of any superintending power.

This is a mistake. According to Vedaanta, Prakriti is always under the control of its wielder. It cannot do anything by itself. Prakriti is non-intelligent. An intelligent Creator alone can have a well thought-out plan for the universe. According to Vedaanta, Prakriti is only a sahakaari (helper).

'Prakriti' means that which is primary, that which precedes what is made. It comes from 'pra' (before) and 'kri' (to make). It resembles the Vedaantik Maayaa. It is the one root of the universe. It is called pradhaana (chief), because all effects are founded on it and it is the root of the universe and all its objects.

'Purusha' or the Self is beyond Prakriti. It is eternally separate from the later. Purusha is without beginning or end. It is without attributes or qualities. It is subtle and omnipresent. It is beyond the mind, intellect and the senses. It is beyond time, space and causality. It is the eternal seer. It is perfect and immutable. It is chidrupa (pure consciousness).

Purusha is not the doer. It is the witness. Purusha is like a crystal without any colour. It appears to be coloured by the different colours which are placed before it. It is not material. It is not a result of combination. Hence it is immortal. Purusha-s or souls are infinite in number, according to Saankhya. If Purusha-s were one, all should become free if any one attained release.

Purusha is a looker-on uniting itself with the unintelligent Prakriti, like a lame man mounted on a blind man's shoulders, in order to behold the phenomena of creation, which Prakriti herself is not able to observe. Purusha or the Self is the saakshi (witness), a drashta (spectator), madhyastha (by-stander), kaivalya (solitary), udaasina (passive and indifferent).

There must be a supervisor over and above Pradhaana or Prakriti. The supervisor is Purusha or the Self. Prakriti and its products are objects of enjoyment. There must be an enjoyer who must be an intelligent principle. This intelligent enjoyer is Purusha or Self (identified with Prakriti).

The characteristics of Prakriti and Purusha are contrary in nature. Purusha is consciousness, while Prakriti is non-consciousness. Purusha is akartaa (non-doer), while Prakriti is active. Purusha is without guna-s (qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas), while Prakriti is characterized by the three guna-s. Purusha is immutable, while Prakriti is subject to modification. Purusha is the knower, while Prakriti is the known. The knower is the subject or the silent witness. The known is the visible object.

Bondage belongs to Prakriti, but is attributed to Purusha. Purusha is eternally free. Union of Purusha with Prakriti due to aviveka (non-discrimination) is bondage; the failure to discriminate between Purusha and Prakriti is the cause of samsaara (bondage); and separation of Purusha and Prakriti due to viveka (discrimination) is liberation. Release is not merging in the Absolute, but isolation from Prakriti.

The object of the Saankhya system is to liberate Purusha or Self from fretters which bind it on account of its union with Prakriti. This is done by conveying the correct knowledge of the twenty-four constituent principles of creation and correctly discriminating the Self from them.

VEDAANTA PHILOSOPHY: Uttara Mimaamsaa or Vedaanta philosophy of Vyaasa (Baadaraayana) is placed as the last of the six orthodox systems, but, really, it ought to stand first. Uttara Mimaamsaa conforms closely to the doctrines propounded in the Upanishad-s. The term Vedaanta means literally 'the end or essence of ‘Veda’. It contains the doctrines set forth in the closing chapters of the Veda-s, which are the Upanishad-s. The Upanishad-s really form the essence of the Veda-s.
According to Upanishad-s, Brahman, the Absolute, is without parts, without qualities, without action and emotion, beginingless, endless and immutable. It is egoless, i.e., there is no notion of 'I' in it. It is the only Reality. Brahman is to the external world what yarn is to cloth, what mud is to mud pot and what gold is to gold ornaments.

Brahman is Paaramaarthika Satta (Absolute Reality). The world is Vyaavahaarika Satta (relative reality). The dream object is Pratibhaasika Satta (apparent reality).

Maayaa: Maayaa is that shakti (power) which hides the real and makes the unreal appear as real. It has two powers, viz., aavarana shakti (the power of veiling) and vikshepa shakti (the power of projecting). Human beings have forgotten their essential nature on account of the aavarana shakti of maayaa. The entire cosmos is projected owing to the vikshepa shakti of maayaa. It is neither sat (real) nor asat (unreal) nor sat-asat (real-unreal) and therefore it is anirvachaniya (indescribable). Other names of maayaa are kaarana sharira (causal body) and avidyaa (ignorance).

The three main schools of Metaphysical thought are: Dvaita (Dualism), Visishtaadvaita (Differentiated or Qualified Non-Dualism) and Advaita (Non-Dualism).

Sri Shankara, Sri Ramanuja and Sri Madhva are the most illustrious commentators on the Vedaanta Sutra-s. These commentators established the three schools of metaphysical thought, based on Prasthaana-Traya (Upanishads, Brahma sutra-s and Bhagavad Geeta) such as Advaita (strict non-dualism), Visishtaadvaita (differentiated or qualified non-dualism) and Dvaita (strict dualism). The translation of 'Advaita' as monism is strictly incorrect, because, the connotation of 'Advaita', which means "the negation of the second entity", is not pronounced in the word 'monism', which only asserts the One.

ADVAITA PHILOSOPHY: The interpretation of Shankara can be summed up thus: "Brahma satyam jagat mithyaa sarva khalu idam Brahma and jeevo brahmaiva na aparah" ("Brahman alone is real; this world is unreal {world as perceived through the finite or limited instruments of body, senses, mind and its emotions and intellect and its thoughts is unreal}; verily these all are Brahman and jeeva (individual self) is non-different from Brahman").

Advaita as taught by Sri Shankara is the Absolute One. According to him, whatever is, is Brahman. Brahman Itself is absolutely homogenous. All differences and plurality are illusory.

Aatman is svatah-siddha (self-evident). It is not established by extraneous proofs. It is not possible to deny Aatman, because It is the very essence of the one who denies It. Can one ever deny one's own existence?

Brahman is all-full, infinite, immutable, self-existent, self-delight, self-knowledge and self-bliss. It is svarupa (essence). It is the essence of the knower. It is turiya (transcendent). Brahman is impersonal, nirguna (without guna-s or attributes), niraakaara (formless), nirvishesha (without special characteristics), nitya (eternal) and akartaa (non-doer). It is above all needs and desires. It can never become an object of knowledge as It is beyond the reach of the senses, mind and its emotions and feelings and intellect and its thoughts. Brahman is non-dual, one without a second. It has no other beside It. Brahman cannot be described and not even be named, because name and description depends on form, shape, size, weight, colour, qualities or physical and chemical properties. It doesn't have any of these. The name Brahman is just for reference sake.

Saguna Brahman (the Absolute clothed in form and attributes also simply called Brahman) and nirguna Brahman (the formless and attributeless Absolute also called Param Brahman) are not two different Brahman-s. Nirguna Brahman is not the contrast, antithesis or opposite of saguna Brahman. The same nirguna Brahman appears as saguna Brahman for the pious worship of the devotees. It is the same Truth from two different points of view. Nirguna Brahman is Para Brahman (higher Brahman), It is the paaramaarthika (from the transcendental viewpoint); Saguna Brahman is vyavahaarika (from the relative viewpoint) for the convenience of those who are strongly identified with their gross body.

The world is not an illusion according to Shankara. The world is vyavahaarika satta (relatively real) according to vivarta vaada or adhyaasa (the theory of appearance or superimposition), while Brahman is paaramaarthika satta (Absolute Reality). The world is the product of maayaa or avidyaa. Maayaa hides the Real and manifests itself as the unreal. Maayaa is not Real because it vanishes when we attain the awareness of the Eternal Principle. It is not unreal also, because it exists till Pure Awareness (objectless, thought free) dawns on us.

The superimposition of the world on Brahman is due to avidyaa. Just as snake is superimposed on the rope in twilight, the entire cosmos of names and forms are superimposed on Brahman or the Supreme Self. With the knowledge of the rope, the illusion of the snake vanishes. Similarly, with the awareness of Brahman or the imperishable, having transcended the identity with the medium of limited and finite instruments of perception, the illusion of the entire cosmos of names and forms disappear. In vivarta-vaada, the cause appears to produce the effect without undergoing any change in itself. Snake is only an appearance on the rope. The rope has not transformed itself into a snake, like milk into curd. Brahman is immutable and eternal. Therefore, It cannot change Itself into the world. Brahman appears to become the cause of creation through the two powers of maayaa.

Advaita philosophy is lofty, sublime, unique, complete and perfect. It is a system of logical subtlety. It is highly inspiring and elevating. No other philosophy can stand before it in boldness, depth and subtle thinking.

VISISHTAADVAITA PHILOSOPHY: Visishtaadvaita is so called because it inculcates Advaita or oneness of God, with visesha (attributes). It is, therefore, Qualified Non-Dualism. God alone exists. All else that is seen are His manifestations or attributes. God, according to Ramanuja's interpretation, is a complex organic whole—visishta—though it is one. Hence the name visishtaadvaita.

According to Shankara's interpretation, all qualities or manifestations are unreal and temporary—a product of avidyaa. According to Ramanuja's interpretation, the attributes are real and permanent. But, they are subject to the control of non-dual Brahman. God can be one, despite the existence of attributes, because they cannot exist alone; they are not independent entities. They are prakaara-s (modes), sesha (accessories) and niyama (controlled aspects) of non-dual Brahman.

Visishtaadvaita admits plurality. According to this philosophy, Brahman subsists in a plurality of forms as souls (chit) and matter (achit). Hence it is called visishtaadvaita (qualified non-dualism). Visishtaadvaita philosophy is Vaishnavism.

Advaita philosophy is too high, subtle and abstract for the vast majority of people. But visishtaadvaita philosophy is suitable for those in whom the devotional element predominates. According to this philosophy, God has two inseparable prakaara-s, viz., the world and the souls. These are related to him as the body is related to the soul. They have no existence apart from Him. They inhere in Him as attributes in a substance. Matter and souls constitute the body of the Lord. The Lord is their indweller as all-pervasive entity. He is the controlling Reality. Matter and souls are the subordinate elements. They are termed viseshana-s (attributes). God is the Viseshya (that which is qualified).

The Visishtaadvaita system is an ancient one. It was originally expounded by Bodhayana in his text Vritti, written about 400 B.C. It is the same as that expounded by Ramanuja. Ramanuja followed Bodhayana in his interpretation of the Brahma sutra-s. The text, Sri Bhaashya contains the commentaries of Ramanuja on Brahma sutra-s. He also wrote Vedaanta Saara, Vedaartha Sangraha and Vedaanta Dipa. They are the main texts of the Visishtaadvaita system of philosophy.

According to Ramanuja, whatever is, is Brahman; but, Brahman is not of a homogenous nature. It contains within Itself elements of plurality on account of which It truly manifests Itself in a diversified world. Brahman, according to Ramanuja, is not the Impersonal Absolute, but a Personal God and the omnipotent and omniscient ruler of a real world, permeated and animated by His spirit and with infinite love. He is the essence of the soul. He is one with the soul. The Lord is immanent as well as transcendent. He is immutable. There is thus no room for the distinction between param nirguna Brahman and an aparam saguna Brahman, i.e., between Brahman and Ishvara.

Brahman of visishtaadvaita is savisesha Brahman (Brahman with attributes). It has svagata bheda (internal difference). It is a synthetic whole, with souls and matter as Its modes—chit-achit-visishta. According to this philosophy, God, soul and nature are three eternal entities. The soul is self-conscious, unchanging, partless and atomic (anu). The souls are infinite in number. The individual soul is really individual. It is absolutely real and eternally distinct from God. It has indeed sprung from Brahman and is never outside Brahman; nevertheless, it enjoys a separate personal existence and will eternally remain an individual.

This philosophy speaks of three classes of souls, viz., nitya (eternal), mukta (free) and baddha (bound). The eternal souls have never been in bondage. They are eternally free. They live with God in Vaikuntha. The freed souls were once subject to samsaara, but have attained salvation now and live with God. The bound souls are caught up in the meshes of samsaara and are striving to be released. They wander from life to life till they are redeemed.

Individual self is a particle of which God is the whole. The individual self is like the spark of a mass of fire. The whole pomegranate fruit represents Brahman, each seed corresponding to individual self.

According to this philosophy, the liberated soul attains to the nature of God. It never becomes identical with Him. It lives in fellowship with the Lord, either serving Him or meditating on Him. It never loses its individuality. There is no such thing as jivanmukti (liberated while living), according to visishtaadvaita. Salvation comes when the soul leaves the body.

DVAITA PHILOSOPHY: Madhvaacharya evolved a Dualistic system of philosophy out of the Prasthaana-traya, viz., the Upanishad-s, the Bhagavad-Gita and the Brahma sutra-s. it is an unqualified dualism. Madhva's Vaishnavism is called Sad-Vaishnavism, in order to distinguish it from the Sri-Vaishnavism of Ramanujacharya.

Madhva makes an absolute distinction between God, and sentient beings and insentient objects. God is the only independent Reality. The animate and inanimate objects are dependent realities. Madhva's interpretation of Vedaanta is the doctrine of absolute differences (Atyanta-Bheda-Darshana). The philosophy insists on Pancha-bheda (five great distinctions), viz., (1) the distinction between God and the individual soul, (2) the distinction between God and matter, (3) the distinction between individual soul and matter, (4) the distinction between one soul and another and (5) the distinction between one material thing and another. Dvaita philosophy is a philosophy of distinction. Every follower of the Dvaita school should have a firm belief in this five-fold distinction, known as Pancha-bheda.

Dvaita philosophy can be grasped by the study of Madhva's commentaries on Brahma sutra-s, Anu-Vyaakhaana, Upanishad-s and Bhagavad-Gita and his glosses on the Mahabharata (Bharata-tatparya-nirnaya) and on the Bhagavata Mahapurana.

Dvaita philosophy has many points in common with those of Visishtaadvaita. In Dvaita philosophy, Hari or Vishnu is the Supreme Being. The world is real. Differences are true. All the jeeva-s are dependent on Hari, the Lord. There are grades of superiority and inferiority among the individual selves. Liberation is the individual self's enjoyment of its innate bliss. This is moksha (the final emancipation). Bhakti (devotion) without faults, is the means of attaining moksha. Perception, inference and the scriptures are the three pramaana-s (ways of knowledge). Hari is knowable only through the Veda-s. Worship of Lord Krishna as taught in the Bhagavata Mahapurana is the centre of his religion. This is the quintessence of Madhva's teachings.

According to dvaita philosophy, the world is not an illusion. It is also not a transformation of God, as curd is of milk. Dvaita does not admit that the world is the body of God. The distinction between God and the world is absolute and unqualified. Hence this system is called Dvaita or unqualified dualism.

There is a plurality of jeeva-s (finite ego or individual self). No two jeeva-s are alike in character. They are essentially different from one another. There are different grades amongst them even in their enjoyment of bliss after salvation. The jeeva-s are different from God and from matter. Dvaita regards the distinction between Brahman and jeeva as real. The finite self or soul does not attain equality with God. It is entitled only to serve Him. Bhakti (devotion) is the means to salvation.

The three schools are all stages on the way to the Absolute Truth. They are rungs on the ladder of Yoga. They are not at all contradictory. On the contrary they are complimentary to one another. These stages are harmoniously arranged in a graded series of spiritual experiences. Dvaita (Dualism), Visishtaadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism) and Advaita (Pure Non-dualism)—all these culminate eventually in the Advaita Vedaantik realization of the Absolute or the transcendental Brahman.

Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or a spark of God," and established Visishtaadvaita philosophy. Shankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Self," and established Kevala Advaita philosophy.

Almost all of us are strongly identified with our gross body and therefore we begin our spiritual journey as a dvaitin. At this stage it is impossible for us to even imagine a formless and attributeless Supreme Entity. A dvaitin wants to serve the Lord with form and attributes (saakaar saguna Brahman) as a servant. He wishes to play with the Lord. He wishes to taste the sugar candy. A visishtaadvaitin wants to become like Lord and enjoy the divine. He does not wish to merge himself or become identical with the Lord. He wishes to remain as a spark. A Jnaani wishes to become identical with Brahman. He wants to become sugar-candy itself. He identifies himself as Brahman.

People have different temperaments and different capacities. So, different schools of philosophy are also necessary. The highest rung is Advaita philosophy. A dvaitin or visishtaadvaitin eventually becomes a Kevala Advaitin.

The three do not stand for different paths leading to the same goal, but only means "the starting point," "the middle" and "the end of the journey." All the three stages have been cryptically defined by no less an authority than Hanuman, the great devotee of Lord Rama, as follows:

"deha budhyaatu daasoham jeevabudhyaa tvamamshakah /
aatmabudhyaa tvamevaaham iti may nischitaa matih //

"At a stage when I am identifying myself with my body, I am your servant—meaning I am other than you, in the master-servant relationship, which is Dvaita. When I identify myself as the jeeva, I am a part of you—which is Visishtaadvaita and when I identify myself with aatman (the Self), I am you—which is Advaita, which exclaims "jeevo brahmaiva na apara."

So, these are only stages in the spiritual evolution of man. Everyone starts as a dvaitin, evolves into visishtaadvaitin and ultimately becomes advaitin. Nowhere else do we get the gradual metamorphosis of man so flawlessly, completely and logically explained as in Sanaatana Dharma. So, dvaita and visishtaadvaita are paths and advaita is the goal.

This is true of all religions. May be the other religions have not expressed it as clearly as Sanaatana Dharma the most ancient of all the living religions of today. Here it will be relevant to quote Swami Vivekananda, from his letter dated 6th May 1895 addressed to Mr. Alasinga, one of his ardent devotees in India:

"All of religion is contained in Vedaanta, that is, in the three stages of the Vedaanta philosophy, dvaita, visishtaadvaita and advaita: one comes after the other. These are the three stages of spiritual growth in man. Each one is necessary. This is the essential of religion. Vedaanta applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism i.e., Sanaatana Dharma. The first stage dvaita applied to the ideas of the ethnic groups of Europe is Christianity; as applied to the Semitic groups is Islam. Advaita as applied in its yoga-perception form is Buddhism etc. Now by religion it is meant Vedaanta. The application must vary according to the different needs, surroundings and other circumstances of the different nations."

Therefore Sanaatana Dharma is said to be the all-comprehensive religion which serves the entire humanity at all times, at all places according to the needs of changing times and circumstances.

The DVAITAADVAITA PHILOSOPHY: This is also known as BHEDAABHEDHA school of philosophy or Dualistic Non-Dualism. This system was evolved by Nimbarkacharya. He wrote a short commentary on the Brahma sutra-s called Vedaanta-Parijaata-Saurabha, as well as Dasasloki.

Nimbarka's interpretation was largely influenced by the teachings of Bhaskara who flourished in the first half of the ninth century and who interpreted Vedaanta system from the viewpoint of dvaitaadavaita (dusalistic non-dualism). This interpretation was not a new discovery of Bhaskara. It was upheld by the ancient teacher Audulomi to which Vyaasa himself refers in his Vedaanta Sutra-s.

Dvaitaadvaita philosophy holds that the relation of God to the jeeva (individual self) and the world is one of identity in difference. Jeeva and the world are different from God, because they are endowed with qualities different from those of God. At the same time, they are not different from God, because God is omnipresent and they depend entirely on Him.

This philosophy admits Brahman as the Supreme Reality without a second. The world and the jeeva-s are only partial manifestation of His power. Jeeva and Brahman are self-conscious. Jeeva is limited. Brahman is infinite. Brahman is independent Reality. Jeeva and prakriti are dependent realities. Jeeva is the bhoktaa (experiencer). The world is bhogya (the experienced). Brahman is niyantaa (supreme controller).

God, jeeva and the world are not absolutely distinct. If the Supreme Being is absolutely distinct from jeeva and the world, it cannot be omnipresent. It will be as limited as the jeeva or the world. It cannot, then, be regarded as their governor. Dvaitaadvaita says that both difference and non-difference are real. Jeeva and the world are different from Brahman, as they are endowed with natures and qualities different from those of Brahman. They are not different, as they cannot exist by themselves and as they depend absolutely on Brahman. Such a relation exists between the sun and its rays, the fire and its sparks. Jeeva-s and matter are distinct from God, but they are closely connected with Him—as waves with water or coils of a rope with the rope itself. They are both distinct and non-distinct from Brahman.

In this school, Brahman is regarded as both the efficient and the material cause of the world. Brahman is both nirguna and saguna, as It is not exhausted in the creation but also transcends it.

The Ultimate Reality exists in four forms. In its primary form, It is the unconditioned, immutable, Supreme Brahman. In the second form, It is Ishvara, the Lord of the Universe. In the third form, It is called jeeva. In Its fourth form, It is manifested as the universe of names and forms. The phenomenal universe is a part of Brahman. It has no existence separate from and independent of Brahman. The relation between the world and Brahman is also one of Bhedaabheda. The universe is not different from Brahman.

Just as a spider spins a cobweb out of itself, so also Brahman has evolved the universe out of Itself. This is the declaration of the Upanishads according to Nimbaarka’s interpretation. In this evolving the universe, Brahman is both its material and the efficient cause. As Brahman is all-powerful, it is perfectly within Its power to be so evolved and at the same time, to remain beyond such evolution. This is supported by the Upanishads and the Brahma sutra-s. Brahman has transformed Itself into this world, without Its noumenal aspect being affected. This is due to the inscrutable creative power inherent in the nature of Brahman.

The individual self is a part of the Supreme Self. It is also identical with, or the same as, the Supreme Self. Just as the wave is both different from the ocean (being only a part of the ocean), and identical with it (both being water); or just as the steam is different from the ice (due to different forms—gaseous and solid), and identical with it (both being water), so also is the individual self both different from (being a part of the Supreme Self), and identical with (both being of the nature of chaitanya or consciousness), the Supreme Self. The relation between the jeeva and Brahman is one of formal difference and essential identity. There is no difference between jeeva and Brahman in kind. The difference is only in degree.

The jeeva is different from Brahman with reference to the phenomenal aspect or the body- idea. It is identical with, or the same as, Brahman with reference to the noumenal aspect as the indivisible whole. This is called Bhedaabheda.

A strong wind perturbs the sea and a wave is formed. The wave is different from the ocean, though it is a part of it. The wind passes away and the wave subsides. Now it cannot be distinguished from the sea. Even so, the mind is agitated by desires and cravings. It runs towards the objects along with the senses and becomes conscious of a distinctive individuality. The ego or the finite self beholds the relative world with its phenomena and gets experiences. When the mind becomes calm and serene by eradication of desires, it ceases to function and all the vritti-s (thought waves) subside. The phenomenal world vanishes and the finite self realizes the Infinite Self or Brahman.

Jeeva-s are of two classes: (1) Jeeva-s who have knowledge of the all-pervading indwelling spirit and who have realized that the appearances are non-separate from Brahman. They are called mukta (liberated). They are free from ignorance. (2) Jeeva-s who only behold the appearances, but have no knowledge of the all-pervading indwelling spirit, the substratum of names and forms. They are called baddha (bound).

The world is not an illusion according to Nimbarka, as it is a parinaama (manifestation) of what is contained subtly in the Supreme Self. The world is not unreal or illusory, but is a true parinaama of Brahman. It may, however, be said to be unreal only in the sense that the present state of its existence is not self-sufficient and it has no separate existence from Brahman. The world is identical with as well as different from Brahman, just as a wave or bubble is the same as and at the same time different from, water.

Salvation is attained by real jnaana (knowledge) and true bhakti (devotion). Real knowledge reveals the true nature of the all-pervading Brahman. True devotion leads to total self-surrender to the Lord. The jeeva retains its individuality with reference to bhoga-samyatvam (divine enjoyment), but its will is subservient to that of Brahman. The individuality of the self is not dissolved even in the state of moksha (liberation). Even in the state of release, the jeeva is different from, as well as identical with, Brahman. This is Bhedaabheda (identity with difference).

Jeeva realizes itself now as an inseparable part of Brahman. It no longer feels that it is a separate or distinct individual, as it felt in ignorance. It abides now in the glory of its own true Self which is Brahman Itself. It is in full awareness of being one with the Lord. In union with Brahman, it attains the same status as that of Brahman, but it has no power over creation, preservation and dissolution of the world.

SUDDHA ADVAITA PHILOSOPHY: Sri Vallabhaacharya established the Suddhaadvaita School of philosophy (Pure Non-Dualism), because he does not admit maayaa or avidyaa like Shankara and believes that the whole world of matter and jeeva-s is real and is only a subtle form of God. Those who bring maayaa or avidyaa for the explanation of the world are not pure advaitin-s, because they admit a second to Brahman. [But, actually, according to advaita philosophy, the world is vyavahaarika satta (relatively real) as per vivarta vaada or adhyaasa (the theory of appearance or superimposition), and therefore, to say that it admits a second to Brahman is not exactly correct.] According to Vallabha’s interpretation Brahman can create the world without any connection with such a principle as maayaa, but Shankara traces the universe to Brahman through the power of maayaa or avidyaa. Hence the philosophy of Vallabha is called Suddhaadvaita (pure non-dualism). Vallabha expounded that system in the Anu-Bhaashya, his commentary on Brahma sutra-s. He called it Suddha-Advaita or pure non-dualism as against Shankara’s Kevala Advaita and Ramanuja’s Visishta-Advaita. His system of thought is known as Brahma-Vaada.

Vallabha says that the entire universe is real and is subtly Brahman. The jeeva-s and the world are, in essence, one with Brahman. [This is exactly what Advaita philosophy says—sarva khalu idam Brahma.] Suddha-Advaita says jeeva, kaala (time) and prakriti or maayaa are eternal existences, but they have no independent existence apart from Brahman.

Vallabha accepts the authority not only of the Upanishad-s, the Bhagavad Geeta and Brahma sutra-s, but also of the Bhaagavata Mahaapuraana. The important works of Vallabha are Vyaasa-sutra Bhaashya (Anu-Bhaashya), Jaimini Sutra Bhaashya, Bhaagavata-Tika Subhodini, Pushti-Pravaaha-Maryaadaa and Siddhaanta Bhaashya. The scriptures are the final authority for Vallabha.

According to Vallabha’s interpretation, God or Brahman is Purushottama or the Absolute. He is perfect. He is Sat-Chit-Aananda. He is infinite, eternal, omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent. He has all the auspicious qualities also. The Shruti texts which say that He has no attributes, mean only that He doesn’t have the ordinary qualities. God is Real. There is no other reality besides Him. He is the only being. He is the source for this universe and all jeeva-s. He is the first cause and the only cause. God is the material as well as the efficient cause of the universe. He creates the world by the mere force of His Will. Brahman manifests Itself, of Its own Will, as the universe and jeeva-s, but It does not undergo any change in Its essential nature. Things come out of the akshara (sat-chit-aananda), like sparks from fire. Brahman is the creator of the world. It is also the world itself.

Creation is manifestation of Brahman. The cosmos is the effect of Brahman. The cosmos is as eternal and real as Brahman Itself. The inanimate cosmos is filled with Brahman. The world is not an illusory appearance. It is not different from Brahman in essence. But, the samsaara (temporal involvement) is illusory. This is created by the jeeva around its ‘I-ness’ and ‘mine-ness’. The separation from God on account of egoism makes the jeeva forget its original, true, divine nature. Samsaara is a product of jeeva-s imagination and action which play round its ‘I-ness’ and ‘mine-ness’. On account of its selfishness, it puts itself in wrong relations with other jeeva-s and with the objective world. It creates a web of its own and gets itself entangled in it. This is an illusion, because the web has no reality. The samsaara, the world of false relations created by the jeeva, is alone maayaa. Samsaara or maayaa rises because the jeeva, which is not apart from God, due to wrong identity, tries to set itself up as an independent reality or entity in its own right, which is impossible and therefore gets frustrated at repeated failures at his attempts. The jeeva as an entity other than God or Brahman is illusory. Its body is illusory and its world—the jeeva shrushti—is also illusory. All this is samsaara. It is very different from the world of nature.

The jeeva-s are not effects. They are the amsha-s or part of God. They issue from Him spontaneously as sparks from fire. Brahman is the whole. The jeeva is part; but there is no real difference between Brahman and the jeeva, because the jeeva is of identical essence with Brahman. [According to Ramanuja, the parts are really different from the whole.] The jeeva is one with Brahman. It is as real and eternal as Brahman.

Jeeva is itself Brahman, with the attribute ‘bliss’ being obscured or suppressed. Aananda (bliss) is suppressed or obscured in the jeeva. Aananda and consciousness are suppressed or obscured in matter or the inanimate world. When the jeeva attains bliss and the inanimate world attains both consciousness and bliss, the difference between Brahman and these vanishes.

There are three kinds of jeeva-s: (1) The suddha (pure) jeeva-s. The aishvarya (divine qualities) are not obscured in these jeeva-s by ignorance. (2) The samsaarin (worldly jeeva-s). These jeeva-s are caught in the net or clutches of avidyaa. They experience births and deaths on account of their connection with gross and subtle bodies. (3) Mukta jeeva-s (liberated). These jeeva-s are freed from the bonds of samsaara through vidyaa (knowledge). When the jeeva attains the final emancipation, it recovers its suppressed qualities and become one with God or Brahman. The world appears as Brahman to one who has realized the Truth or Brahman.

Here concludes a short note on Saankhya and a brief synopsis on five schools of philosophy—Advaita, Visishtaadvaita, Dvaita, Dvaitaadvaita and Suddha Advaita based on Prasthaana-Traya—Upanishad-s, Brahma sutra-s and Bhagavad Geeta